Monday, July 27, 2020

GROUP DYNAMICS

GROUP DYNAMICS

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Your main aim apparently is to understand why do individuals form groups. Let us ask you some questions: How old were you when you first joined a group? How many different groups do you belong to? How would you identify a group leader? Does your behaviour change when you are with different groups? Have you ever led a group? In what sense were you the leader? What were the results?
If on your own you start answering these questions, you will find that understanding group behaviour and the properties of groups are essential to being both a good manager and an effective member of groups. You must have by now become familiar with the manager’s functions related to groups. For example, a manager spends half of his or her time in some formal or informal meetings, where a group of people get together to solve problems or make plans. So the manager acts as a member of a group with other managers or colleagues.
There are also many examples where the manager decides to take a decision on his or her own or to rely on groups by holding meetings or making committees. Interaction with small groups is very important for a manager. Such a group of peers or colleagues, other managers, specialists or others really help the manager to take an effective decision. You might have also come across instances of well knit and cohesive groups, which really make a superior performance under a good leader. For all these purposes you must try to gain an understanding of how to manage a group and how to become a more effective group member. In order to develop the above two objectives, you must always keep in mind that a group is part of a larger organisation with which it interacts. It is in this context that we talk of group dynamics. So we must 212
understand the meaning of Group Dynamics before we talk about the dynamics of group formation and other related issues that have been discussed in this Unit.
16.2 GROUP DYNAMICS
Group Dynamics is concerned with the interactions and the forces operating among group members in any situation. In the 1930s Kurt Lewin had popularised this term. You are already familiar with the three styles of leadership, i.e. Authoritarian, Democratic and Laissez-faire, which Lewin (1939)and his associates had developed by creating three different social situations for the three styles of leadership. In course of time, various meanings were attached to the term ‘group dynamics’ (Kelly 1974). One of the meanings suggests how a group should be organised and conducted. In democratic leadership, member participation and overall cooperation are emphasised. Another meaning of Group Dynamics is that it is a set of techniques which through various group exercises tries to make the leader as well as the member effective. An attempt is made to make the members play their roles in a management situation of group discussions, team building, finding out various solutions to problems by brainstorming and understanding oneself in relation to others while transacting or interacting with others. Such exercises are also provided in situations where only members are present and no leader exists to direct or control the group. All these exercises are techniques to develop both the individual as well as the organisation in which he or she works. The last meaning of the term Group Dynamics is closest to Lewin’s use of the term suggesting internal nature of the groups as to how they are formed, what their structures and processes are, how they function and affect individual members, other groups and the organisation. In this Unit, our main attention will be focused on the third meaning of the term. Hence, the next step is to start with defining a group and then consider the dynamics of group formation.
16.3 WHAT IS A GROUP?
A group is any number of people who:
• have a common purpose or objective,
• interact with each other to accomplish their objectives,
• are aware of one another, and
• perceive themselves to be part of the group.
This is the way Huse and Bowditch (1977) defined a group. You were asked at the beginning as to how many different groups you belong to. You may see, from the above definition that throughout our lives, we belong to many different groups. Families are groups, a cricket team is a group, a club is a group and drama and music organisations are all groups. You can thus apply the concept of group to various examples of politics, consumers, sports, etc. as the case may be. In management, we primarily talk of groups at work. In most organisations, getting the work done requires group efforts. A Manager must know how to manage a group by understanding Group Dynamics.
At this point, the number of people as contained in the definition of the group, should not be taken too literally. At some point, the number of people may become too large to fit the rest of the definition. For example all the people of India cannot interact with each other. Also, each group has a common objectives,
but the members who belong to it may have other personal objectives. For example, a travel agent may like to become a member of a parent-teacher association of school to help promote the development process of its students. But belonging to this association will also help in increasing his or her contacts, to know more people and enlist them as clients of the travel agency.
What is most important in the content of the definition of a group is to be aware of each other in a group. This awareness is seldom there, when we look at an aggregation of people. They are mere collections, different from what we call a group, where members see themselves as belonging to a group in order to interact and achieve the common objectives of the group. Moreover, such kind of interaction may be over a long or a short period of time. In waiting for a bus, passengers make a queue. All of them have a common purpose that is, to enter the bus after buying tickets. We cannot call them a group, although they have a common purpose. Suddenly a person breaks the queue to go ahead. All others get together to prevent that person gate crashing and getting his ticket ahead of those standing in the queue before him. At that moment, a group is formed. Perhaps, after controlling that person from getting a ticket out of turn, the
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others keep continuing to talk to each other but the common purpose of keeping the queue out vanishes. The group disappears and the number of people become an aggregation or a collection.
16.4 THE DYNAMICS OF GROUP FORMATION
It becomes necessary to understand why people do form into groups. Some believe that it is because of propinquity or affiliating with one another that individuals form into groups. In a room people sitting nearer to each other more easily make a group than people sitting at opposite ends of a room. This kind of affiliation of people with each other is due to spatial nearness or geographical nearness. But it does not help us to understand some of the complexities of group formation which are more than mere affiliations due to physical or geographical nearness . Hence, we discuss here some major theories of group formation in brief.
16.4.1 Theories
1) Homans (1950) explained the basis of group formation in terms of activities, interaction and sentiments of people. These three elements are directly related to each other. In the example of controlling a queue breaker in the line, cited earlier, the required activities are the assigned tasks at which people work. All others knew their turn and how to exercise it especially, with a sudden change of situation created by the queue breaker. The required interaction takes place when any one person’s activity follows or is influenced by the activity of another. In this example the person whose turn was dislocated by the queue breaker influences all other’s activities. As soon as he pushes out the person (the queue breaker) or tells him not to do it, all others follow him. Hence required interaction may be verbal (telling him not to break the queue) or non-verbal (pushing him out of the queue). One can see the activities and the interactions. But as sentiments are the feelings or attitudes of a person towards others, his likes or dislikes, approval or disapproval, can only be inferred from the behaviour. After the activity of throwing out the queue breaker changed, the interactions also change. In the above example, people talk to each other in a very informal way after they succeeded in throwing out the queue breaker. These informal interactions, known as emergent interactions, change the activities into informal or emergent activities such as people reorganising their queue and ensuring that no other intruder comes in out of turn. All these activities emerge because of the sentiments or feelings of the people.
You will notice that the more activities the people share, the more numerous will be their interactions and the stronger will be their mutual sentiments. Therefore, in turn, with more interactions among persons, the more will be their shared activities and sentiments. Again in turn the more sentiments the persons have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions. Homan’s theory therefore explains the formation of group on the basis of people’s interaction with each other.
People are not only physically together, but they also solve problems, attain goals, facilitate coordination, reduce tension and achieve a balance. In an organisation the participants interact with each other in this manner and tend to form into powerful groups.
2) Newcomb (1961) came up with the balance theory of group formation which explains group formation on the basis of attraction of persons towards each other as they have similar attitudes towards common objects or goals. For example, person A and B will interact and form a relationship because of their common attitudes towards C. If A and B form a relationship or a group, they will strive to maintain a symmetrical balance between the attraction and the common attitudes and values. Whenever this relationship between A and B becomes unbalanced, both will try to restore the balance. If the balance cannot be restored, then their relationship is dissolved. Both affiliation and interaction play a significant role in balance theory.
3) Thaibaut and Kelly (1959) talk of another theory of group formation, citing the outcome of interaction
as the basis of group formation. The outcome of a relationship should be rewarding in order to have attraction or affiliation among the persons or members of a group. The persons derive personal and social satisfaction from having interactions with each other. If they incur anxiety or frustration or embarrassment or fatigue in such interactions, then that interaction becomes a cost for them rather than a reward. Thaibaut and Kelley’s theory or group formation is known as exchange theory of reward and cost outcomes. Affiliation, interaction and common attitudes – all play their roles in the exchange theory.
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16.4.2 Group Offers
For individuals, there are some very practical reasons to join a group or forming a group. Most of us can satisfy our needs only with or through other people. Let us see some of the needs that the groups help us to satisfy.
i) Safety and security needs
Do you remember, the first question asking you as to how old you were when you first joined a group? The answer is, perhaps you joined in a group in your pre-school years in a nursery class room. You learned to protect yourself by being in a group. In a class, a teacher asks the kids who broke the toy and seldoms gets an answer. All the kids keep quite. Although young, they protect their members by not disclosing anybody’s name or pointing out at any one in a group.
Even in emergency activities of putting off fire, the fire fighters depend on each other for protection. This is a case where individuals doing hazardous jobs derive physiological and psychological support from the groups. They need to be physically together even if they know that this may increase their collective danger. This helps them to be more confident and able to perform well, less fearful and more responsible to carry out their duties. Hence, safety and security are offered by a group.
ii) Relatedness or belongingness needs
You might have noticed many persons in your working life, who are very isolated or who prefer to be absent from wok most of the times or an organisation having high turnover of employees or frequent change of employees. Studies show, such phenomena occur where people are unable to belong to a group. This is because of the fact that all of us are social beings, and belonging to or relating to groups, satisfies a number of social needs. We get emotional support from a group, which is particularly helpful at times of stress. In normal situations, affiliation to a group has a major influence on human behaviour in organisations. When we are isolated from human communication and companionship, we simply lose touch with reality. A group offers a feeling of oneness and belongingness.
iii) Esteem and growth needs
When you do a piece of work, you get a praise from others. This gives a sense of recognition which fulfils you esteem need (being recognised) and also brings a sense of fulfilment of your need for growth towards further achievement of good work and career prospects. A group provides you this opportunity.
16.4.3 Types of Groups
We should now make ourselves familiar with various kinds of groups and the different ways to classify them. Here we concentrate on both formal and informal groups existing in organisations and talk of other groups in brief.
i) Formal Groups
These groups are established by the organisaton to accomplish specific tasks. According to Cartwright and Zander (1947) these include command groups which consist of managers and their direct subordinates; and committees and task forces which are created to carry out specific organisational assignments or activities. Command groups and committees continue to exist whereas task forces are usually established to solve a particular problem. They are disbanded after the work is done.
ii) Informal Groups
These groups are formed within the structure of the organisation but by the members themselves rather than by the organisation. Sometimes they do not have the approval of the management. Basically, informal groups are formed to satisfy social needs on the job. Sometimes they are formed to perform a task better, sometimes they are formed for information seeking. In a rigid system of organisation, these informal groups meet fairly regularly to cut short the rigid bureaucratic practices of the management.
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iii) Primary Groups
Cooley (1911) defined and analysed primary groups as those characterised by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individuals. Many people use the term small group interchangeably with primary group. But the small group only meets the criterion of small size for face-to-face interaction and communication to occur. In addition to being small a primary group must have a feeling of comradeship, loyalty and a common sense of values among all its members. Thus, all primary groups are small groups but not all small groups are primary.
iv) Membership Groups
These are the ones to which the individual actually belongs. Example are clubs, cooperative societies, workers union, etc.
v) Reference Groups
These are the ones with which an individual identifies or to which he or she would like to belong. Examples are socially or professionally prestigious groups with which the individual would like to belong like adventure tour operators forming a group or tourist guides forming a group.
Check Your Progress-1
1) Define a group.
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2) What do groups offer to people ?.
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3) Discuss the types of groups.
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16.5 GROUP ROLES
Shakespeare said, “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.” Using the same
metaphor, all group members are actors, each playing a role. By this term, we mean a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. The understanding of role behaviour would be dramatically simplified if each of us chose one role and “played it out” regularly and consistently. We are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off our jobs. As we shall see, one of the tasks in understanding behaviour is grasping the role that a person is currently playing.
For example, on her job, Ms. ‘X’ is a Regional manager with the tourism department. She has a number of roles to fulfil on that job, for instance as a member of middle management representing her department in that region, a spokesperson for the department etc. Off the job she finds herself playing still more roles: wife, mother etc. Thus, we are all required to play a number of roles and our behaviour varies with the role we are playing though many of these roles are compatible while other are conflicting.
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Role Identity and Perception
There are certain attitudes and actual behaviours consistent with a role and they create the role identity. People have the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognise that the situation and its demands clearly require major changes. For example, when workers were promoted to foremen positions, it was found that their attitudes changed from pro-union to pro-management within a few months of their promotion. When promotions had to be later rescinded because of economic difficulties in the firm, it was found that the demoted workers again adopted their pro-union attitudes. At the same time, when the situation is more vague and the role one has to play is less clear, people often revert to old identities. Where the role requirements are ill-defined , there also individuals revert back to old patterns of behaviour. One’s own view of how one is supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception. Based on an interpretation of how we believe we are supposed to behave, we engage in certain types of behaviour.
Role Expectations and Conflict
Role expectations are defined as how others believe you should act in a given situation. How you behave is determined, to a large part, by the role defined in the context in which you are acting. The role of a monument guide is viewed as having knowledge, communication skills and one satisfactying the curiosity of the tourists, where as a mountain guide is seen as strong, adventurous and inspiring to the tourists. When role expectations are concentrated into generalised categories, we have role stereotypes. During last decades we have seen a major changes in the general population’s role stereotypes of females. In 1950, a woman’s role was to stay home, take care of the house, bring up children, and generally care for her husband. Today, most of us no longer hold this stereotype. Girls work hard to be doctors, lawyers, managers and astronauts as well the more traditional activities of nurse, school teachers, secretary or housewife. In other words, many of us have changed our role expectations of women and, similarly many women carry new role perceptions.
In the work place, it can be helpful to look at the role expectations through the perspective of the psychological contract, an unwritten agreement, existing between employees and the employer. It sets out mutual expectations – what management expects from employees and vice versa. In effect, this contract defines the behavioural expectations that go with every role. Management is expected to treat employees justly, provide acceptable working conditions, clearly communicate what is a fair day’s work and give feedback on how well the employee is doing. In turn employees are expected to respond by demonstrating a good attitude, following directions, and showing loyalty to the organisation.
When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations, the result is role conflict. It exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role requirement may make more difficult the compliance with another. At the extreme it would include situations where two or more role expectations are mutually contradictory. To choose between profitability and business ethics is an area of role conflict among managers.
16.6 IMPLICATIONS OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS FOR MANAGEMENT
In this Section we discuss the implications of formal and informal groups for management and certain other issues related to it.
i) Formal Groups: Committees
As defined earlier formal groups are established by the organisation to accomplish specific tasks. These groups include command groups, committees and task forces. Here, we further clarify committee organisation as an important type of formally designated group and its implication for management.
Committees are special kinds of groups which serve the following purposes in an organisation:
• Exchanging views and information,
• Recommending action,
• Generating ideas, and
• Making decisions.
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The size of the committee is usually kept small to encourage good quality of decisions. Communication among members is thus limited to few. With increase in the size of committee, many members feel less willing or threatened to participate actively.
The chairperson of the committee provides directions to the committee to fulfil the objectives of the committee. He or she should :
• be a person of open mind and a careful listener,
• allow members to voice their opinions,
• not place his or her opinion above those of others,
• involve everyone in the activities of the committee,
• have active interest in the purpose of the committee and in the ideas of the members, and
• help the committee focus on the task at hand and on the progress made.
The members of the committee should:
• cooperate with each other to achieve the purpose of the committee,
• have stronger motivation to accomplish the task,
• have effective communication with each other, and
• generate more ideas in the group.
With today’s organisations becoming increasingly large and complex, the committee form of organisation will, undoubtedly become more important and more widely used in future. The modern manager must learn how committees, teams, commissions, boards, groups or task forces should be effectively formed and made functional. This kind of group management will become more popular as well as important in times to come. But this is not to say that there would not be any short comings:
• Meeting of members in a committee may be time consuming and costly insofar as individual’s time is concerned.
• Committees are also criticised for not making the members responsible for bad decisions or mistakes.
• Many individuals use the committee as a shield to avoid personal responsibility for bad decisions or mistakes.
• Many decisions taken by a committee may or may not be liked by members of the organisation who are likely to be affected by it.
• Committees may be formed intentionally to delay decision making or for avoiding issues.
In spite of all the above shortcomings that are likely to be there, the future manager must learn to arrive at an improved decision through the combined and integrated judgement of the committee members. He or she can reduce conflict in the group, facilitate coordination of various groups in the organisation and increase commitment and motivation of members of the organisation through participation. Committees, which are thus the formally designated groups of the organisation, are assuming more importance in the day-to-day functioning at any organisational level. Today they are acknowledged as significant features of group dynamics in organisational behaviour.
ii) Informal Groups: Work Groups
Informal groups play a significant role in the dynamics of organisational behaviour. A formal group has officially prescribed goals and relationships which an informal group does not have. But we cannot think of these two groups as separate entities, as they coexist and they are inseparable. Every formal organisation has informal groups and every informal organisation eventually evolves some semblance of formal groups. An illustration will make it clear. When an engineer designs the plans and technology for a new organisation and when an architect designs the office layout, they are also designing the social relations that will prevail in the organisation. The formal organisation of the management determines where employees will work and what opportunities they will have to contact each other during the day. Also the rates of pay, work condition and other aspects of the job as decided by the management are important too. Given these basic elements one can predict the social relations that exist within the organisation long before the first person is employed and enters the organisation. This is because of the fact that every person is told 218
formally where and how he or she is to work and with whom to come in contact. Obviously, one develops friendship with the people one most often comes across. In fact, those employees who have the greatest opportunities to make contacts on the job make the largest number of friends. In course of time, they may be in the best position to become leaders of the group.
Based on contacts and common interests such friendship groups made by employees arise out of the life in the organisation. Once these groups have been established they develop a life of their own, which is almost completely separate from the work process from which they started. The process is dynamic and self-generating and makes the work group an organisational in itself.
16.6.1 Characteristics of Effective Work Groups
In managing the organisation, you have to understand how groups can be made into effective work groups. The factors that influence the work group effectiveness are norms, cohesion and leadership. Let us see how each one of them contributes in making the group effective to achieve the objectives of the organisation.
i) Group norms
When the group functions for a period of time, to attain certain objectives, it develops norms or standards of behaviour. A norm as a rule tells the individual how to behave in a particular group. An individual may be a member of a welfare group, a chess club, family and work group. You may like to watch his or her behaviour in various groups. You will see the different kinds of behaviour of the same individual in different groups.
You may also notice that sometimes the norm is formal and is accepted by the group that way. For example all members of a particular work group wear safety glasses while operating on a particular machine. All of them would do so by accepting this norm. On the other hand, a norm can be informal arising out of the interactions and feelings of the people. For example, all the members of a task group decide to keep their output high by regulating their pace of work or a number of typists decide to attain a target of fifty pages of neat typing everyday. So they do it.
It is also possible that another groups may like to keep the output low again because of some emergent activities, interactions and feelings of the group. So it is important to know what behaviour is significant for the group which helps to develop a norm. In other words, having high or low output is equally influenced by what the group prescribes for its members as well as what other activities, interactions and feelings develop among the members in course of doing a work. So we can say that one of the characteristics of norms is that they develop behaviour that is significant for the group.
We also find another characteristics of norms i.e. some norms are applicable to some people only and not to all. For example, a manager of a group behaves differently from other members of the group. His or her behaviour is what is expected of him or her in a given position by others. When a new member joins the group, he or she is expected to follow the norms more closely than the senior members.
Some norms have central importance and are accepted by everyone of the group while others have less importance. Schein (1974) talks of pivotal and relevant group norms. A pivotal group norm is a norm to which every member must conform. A worker who remains absent or does not do any work will not last long in an organisation. A relevant group norm is one which is neither central nor absolutely essential to follow but is worthwhile and desirable. So any norm may be pivotal in one group, but may be irrelevant to another.
Some of us conform to all the norms of the group, some of us select only pivotal norms for acceptance, still others reject all values and norms of the group. It is usually seen that complete conformity to norms, as in the first case and complete rejection of the norms, as in the last one, have undesirable consequences. A complete conforming individual loses his or her ability to influence the group. An individual who rejects all group norms is likely to be expelled from the group. It is therefore advisable that the individual exercises his or her choice of acceptance of the norm quite discreetly.
It is equally important to understand that with increase in size of the group, norms are less likely to be accepted. It is also true that more intelligent persons are less likely to conform to norms. You may notice that, as the group increases in size, there are chances of subgroups being formed. Hence a general norm of 219
the total group is difficult to maintain with uniform conformity all the time. The last characteristics of norms is that they allow only possible deviations. An individual who deviates too far gets punished.
Ask yourself the following questions in the position of a manager.
• What have you understood about norms when you are a formal leader of a group and when you are a member of other group ?
• Have you understood what the norms of various groups are ?
• Do you know which are the central norms?
• Do people conform to norms completely?
• Do people wait for their leader to speak first in a meeting?
• Do people come in time for meetings?
• Is disagreement allowed? and
• Do people have a common style of clothing? etc.
As a manager, you must also try to understand why people opt to lower their output and if need be, you should change the situation in order to change the norm of low output. You should try to develop trust among your members in order to be able to influence and change or modify the norms of your group. Your effectiveness as a manager will increase with a high level of trust between you and your group members.
ii) Group cohesiveness
This means the degree to which group members are motivated to remain within the group and consequently behave in similar ways. A cohesive group also helps the members in their satisfaction of needs and attainment of goals. Cohesiveness develops out of the activities, interactions and sentiments of the people. The cohesive group acts as one person to attain its goal.
The factors which influence the cohesiveness of a group are listed below:
a) Size of the group: With very few people in a group, you may fall short of skilled hands to do a good job. With a large number of people you may find it difficult to communicate and identify the best talent. At the same time an individual member may not be happy with his or her interaction with the group. In the first case, there is a breakdown of the task and in the second case reaching out to people is difficult. Quite unintentionally you may even encourage formation of many sub-groups in a large group. Hence group cohesiveness will suffer.
b) Proximity or geography of the group: Nearness or working closely together helps in group cohesiveness. It helps face to face contact. A small isolated work group is cohesive and will work better to attain its goals.
c) Outside pressure: This binds together all the members against a common enemy and thus makes its members forget their differences. You might have observed how groups become cohesive under outside pressure when there is (i) competition with other groups or (ii) union management conflict or (iii) reaction against the supervisor who closely supervises the work or (iv) lack of trust between the manager and his group or (v) even mistrust between two groups.
d) Accomplishing group goals: As the group becomes more cohesive the members become more motivated to accomplish its goals and behave in similar ways. Accomplishing group goals increases the cohesion of the group. Failing to accomplish the group goals reduces group cohesiveness.
It is necessary to remember that it is not always desirable to have group cohesiveness, which may result in going against the objectives of the work group. So you must find out what the harmful effects are likely to be of a cohesive group. Examples of rejection of new ideas by cohesive group members are not uncommon. At times these members feel that they know the best. This kind of feeling is known as ‘group think’ where members show tremendous desire for unanimity. A great deal of solidarity and loyalty to the group overrides the motivation of the members to consider different courses of action logically and in a realistic manner. At times, many significant decisions are made on the basis of group think principles which have been quite unfortunate for a large number of people.
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As a manager, you must make a cohesive group to accomplish organisational goals. You have to give information, get the resources for your members to accomplish the task and hold frequent open meetings. O’Donnell (1961) and Filey (1970) suggest that one should try to avoid group think by having open discussion and allowing conflicting points of view to emerge.
iii) Group leadership
Leadership is the ability to influence the behaviour of others. Any effective work group wanting to accomplish its task gaining some sort of social satisfaction and having some sense of contribution and growth should like to look up to a leader to help reach these goals.
Informal leaders often emerge from the activities, interaction and sentiments of the ongoing group. They may help the group to accomplish its task or fulfil its social goals. You will always notice that formal task instruction comes from the supervisor, but informal help comes from the informal leader.
Informal leader may be lower in official status than the formal leader. But he or she helps the group satisfy both personal and organisational goals. If this job is done by the formal leader, than there will be no informal leader emerging out of the group. If the informal leader helps in attaining the organisational goals, then he or she becomes task oriented like a formal leader and there may be chances that a social leader will emerge to maintain a balance between organisatinal and personal needs.
In order to be effective as a manager, you must recognise the existence of informal leaders and work with them to develop ground norms of high productivity, build more cohesion and enable the members to have their social needs satisfied.
16.6.2 Managing Group Productivity
In your role as a manager you will do well to remember some useful ways to make your work group effective. As O’Donnel (1969) suggests, you must know the content and the process to manage your group of people towards attaining the goal.
i) Content
While having a meeting with your group members try to understand the subject matter of the task to be performed by the committee. This will help you to see the problem clearly and solve it to,
• Decide about the size of the committee (having about five to fifteen members) and include experts in the committee to solve your problem,
• Distribute the agenda before the meeting is held to all the members,
• Specify the timings of the meeting,
• Encourage persons to present their ideas and do not encourage them to pick up the first feasible solution to a problem. Allow them to think of various alternative solutions, and
• Periodically summarise the discussion and restate the current position of the committees as to whether the committee has to finally decide on a solution or only recommend a solution to a higher authority/advice the higher authority.
ii) Process
This involves how the content is handled or discussed by the members. Benne and Sheats (1948) describe three effective ways to approach the group processes:
• One of the ways the content is handled is by group task activities. You may initiate, orient the group to its goal, coordinate, give and seek information about the problem.
• Another way may be through the group building activities like encouraging members to cooperate with each other. In the work, encourage people to participate, share jokes or humour with them at times and see to it that they enjoy doing the work because of a good group atmosphere. This is the group building activity which helps a manager to establish better group relationship.
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• Still another way the group members satisfy their needs is through self-serving activities. Members satisfy their needs at the cost of others. You might have noticed that many behave in a dominating manner, many try to get attention, many behave aggressively and many withdraw while working in the group. Persons engaged in the above activities are only serving their own purpose or interest rather than helping the group to achieve its goal.
You must try to understand the difference between the content and process to make the group more effective. Too much of task activity and too little of group building activity is not a good way to make an effective work group. Self-serving activities are signs of non-construction of valid personal needs and are disruptive. They reduce the ability of the group to attain its objectives.
Many times we overlook the fact that people can be both emotional and rational in understanding the content and process of work. Emotions are realities that have to be taken care of. A good manager must not neglect the group building activity as it may make group and committee meetings ineffective. He or she should draw on the influence of the informal group by integrating its objectives with those of the formal group as well as try to keep the formal activities from unnecessarily disrupting the informal organisation.
Check Your Progress-2
1) Discuss the role of informal groups in management.
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2) How would you manage group productivity?
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16.7 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we discussed how groups represent an important dynamic input into organisational behaviour. Group formation, types and theories have relevance to the study of an organisation. Members in an organisation form into groups for satisfying their security, social and esteem needs. We have also come across the concept of formal and informal groups which are especially important in organisational functioning. We also discussed the role of the individuals in the group, identification, perceptions and various expectations of the group members. Committees not work groups in particular play an important role in modern organisations. Characteristics of effective work groups, such as group norms, group cohesiveness and group leadership were discussed and finally suggestions have been made about how to manage effective groups and committees. Management in the future must be able to understand, and when ever possible, take advantage of group dynamics of formal and informal groups in organisations.
16.8 KEY WORDS
Command Groups : Formal groups that consists of managers and their direct subordinates.
Committee : A formal group that is created out specific organisatioanal assignment or activities.
Content : The subject of the meeting or of the task being performed.
Group Building Activities: Those activities that allow the group to maintain itself by helping to satisfy members’ needs and by encouraging cooperation among members.
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Group Cohesiveness : The extent to which group members are motivated to remain within the group and in consequence to behave in similar ways.
Group Task Activities : Activities performed within the organisational structure by the individuals rather than by management.
Pivotal Norms : Organisational values which are absolutely necessary for any one who wants to stay in the organisation.
Sentiments : The feelings or attitudes a person has about others, such as likes or dislikes and approval or disapproval.
Task Force : A group established to solve a particular problem.
16.9 CLUES TO ANSWERS
Check Your Progress-1
1) Read Sec. 16.3 for your answer.
2) See Sub- sec. 16.4.2.
3) See Sub-sec. 16.4.3.
1) Read Sec. 16.6.
Check Your Progress-2
2) Read Sub-sec. 16.6.2.
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SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
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Allen, L.A.1958. Management and Organisation. Mc Graw-Hill: Auckland.
Barnard, C.I. , 1937. The Functions of the Executive. Harward University Press: Cambridge.
Baskin & Arnoff, 1980. Interpersonal Communication In Organisations. Goodyear Publishing: Santa Monica.
Bass, B.M. 1960. Leadership, Psychology and Organisational Behaviour. Harper & Brother: New York.
Bedeian, A.G. 1986. Management. Dryden Press: New York.
Behling, O., and Schriesheinn, C. 1976. Organisational Behaviour Theory, Research & Application. Allyn & Bacon: Boston.
Drucker, Peter F. 1955. Practices of Management. Heinamann.: London.
Drucker, Peter F. 1975/81. Management Tasks, Responsibilities, & Practices, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Elbing, A. 1978. Behavioural Decisions in Organisations. Scott Foresman: Glenview.
Fielder, F.E. 1967. A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. Mc Graw- Hill: New York.
Glueck, Williams F., 1980. Strategic Management and Business Policy. Mc-Graw-Hill Book Company: New York.
Graner, 1972. Evolution & revolution as organisation grows, Approved Business Review. July August.
G.R. Terry and S.G. Franklin : Principle of Management, Delhi. 1995
Hampton, Summen and Webber, 1973. Organisational Behaviour and the Practice of Management. Scott, Foresman: Glencove.
Harvey Donald F., 1984. Strategic Management. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company: Columbus.
Kanter , Jerone, 1984. Management-oriented Management Information Systems. Prentice Hall Incorporated Englewood-Cliffs.
Kast, F.E. and Rosenwrig, J.E. 1985. Organisation and Management : A System and Contingency Approach, Mr Graw Hill Book Company: New Delhi.
Katz R.L., Skills of an Effective Administrator. Harward Business Review, 52(5) 90-102.
Kelly, J.1974 . Organisational Behaviour. Rev. Ed Irwin: Hornewood.
Khan, Mahmood A. (ed.) VNR’s Encyclopedia Hospitality and Tourism Management. New York 1992.
Koontz, H. and O’Donnell, C. 1976/85. Management : A System and Contingency Analysis of Managerial Function. Mc Graw Hill, Kogakusha Ltd: Tokyo.
Koontz, O’Donnell, and weihrich, 1982. Essentials of Management, .Tata Mc- Graw Hill: New Delhi.
Likert, R. 1961. New Patterns of Management. Mc- Graw Hill : New York.
Likert, R. 1961. New Patterns of Management. Mc-Graw Hill: New York.
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Myers and Myers, 1982. Managing by Communication: An Organisatinal Approach. Mc Graw International : Tokyo.
Newman, William H. Summer, Charles E. and Women, E. Kirby. The Process of Management : Concepts. Behaviour and Practice, Prentice Hall of India: New Delhi.
Paul, S. 1983. Strategic Management of Development Programmes. Management Development Services No. 19, International Labour Organisation : Geneva.
Peters, Thomas, J and Waterman, Robert H., 1985. In Search of Excellence. Harpen and Raw: New York.
Reddin, W.J. 1972, Effective Management by Objectives: The 3D Method of MBO. Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company: New Delhi.
Robbins, S.P. 1985. Organisational Behaviour: Cases, Concepts and Controversies, Prentice Hall of India: New Delhi.
Roesthuisberger, F.J. and W.j. Dickson, 1939. Management and the Worker. Harward: Cambridge.
Rogers, H.A. & Slinn J.A. 1993, Tourism : Management of Facilities. London.
Simon, H.A. 1960. The New Science of Management Decision. Harper : New Delhi.
Sinha. J.B.P., 1980. The Nurturant Task Leader. First Edition, The Concept Publishing House : New Delhi.
Soelberg. P.O. 1967. A Study of Decisions Making, Job Choice. MIT Press: Cambridge.
Stoner, J.A.F. 1982. Management. Prentice Hall: New Delhi.
Taylor, E.W. 1909. The Principles of Scientific Management. Harper: New Delhi.
Thompson, J.D 1967. Organisation in Action. Mc Graw – Hill : New Delhi.

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